North Pole

A precise definition
See also: Polar motion
Earth on its axis of rotation and therefore the position of Polo North is generally accepted to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might "wobble" a little. In the early 20th astronomers noticed a small apparent "variation of latitude" as determined by a fixed point on Earth observation stars. Some of this variation can be attributed to a wandering of the pole on the surface of the Earth, a series of meters. The wandering has several periodic components and a component irregular. The component with a period of about 435 days are identified with the eight months wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. Point exact intersection of the axis of the Earth and the Earth's surface at a given time is called the "instant center, but due to the swing" this can not be used as a fixed definition of a North Pole (or South Pole) where the meter-scale precision is required.
It is appropriate to link the system of the Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude and altitude or topography) of land fixed. Of course, plate tectonics, isostasy, and since there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. However, the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems and the International Astronomical Union agreed on a framework of the International Terrestrial Reference.
Expeditions
See also: Arctic exploration to the north and the list of expeditions in the Arctic
Pre-1900
From the sixteenth century many prominent correctly believes that the North Pole was in a sea that, in the nineteenth century has been called the Polynia or Open Polar Sea. It was therefore expected that the passage can be found through the ice, sometimes good years. Several expeditions have tried to find a way, generally with whaling, and are commonly used in cold latitudes the north.
One of the first shipments with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of a British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 became latitude to 8245. In 1871 Polaris expedition, an American attempt at the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, ended in disaster. An expedition led by Officer 18791881 the United States Navy, George Washington DeLong also ended in tragedy when their ship, the USS Jeannette was crushed by ice. More than half of the crew, including DeLong, are lost.
Nansen's ship Fram in the Arctic ice
In 1895 April the Norwegian explorers Nansen and Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen ski Striped Polo after leaving Fram Nansen ship trapped in ice. The couple arrived in North Latitude 8614, before abandoning the attempt and went to the south to Franz Josef Land.
In 1897, the Swedish engineer Andrew Solomon in August and two companions tried to reach the North Pole in a balloon of hydrogen NSNR ("Eagle"), but were blocked 300 km north of Kvitya, the northernmost part of the archipelago of Svalbard, and perished on this lonely island. In 1930, the remains of this expedition were found for Bratvaag Norwegian shipping.
Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of Abruzzi and Italy captain Umberto Cagni the Royal Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the whaler become Norwegian Polar Stella in 1899. On March 11, 1900 Cagni led a party on the ice and reached the latitude 86 34 25 April set a new record after beating Nansen 35-40 1895 miles. Cagni barely made it to camp, where he remained until June 23. On August 16 he left Stella Polare Rudolf Island in the south and the expedition returned Norway.
19001940
American explorer Frederick Albert Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole Etukishook April 21, 1908 with two Inuit men and Ahwelah, but failed to submit convincing evidence and its implementation is not widely accepted.
Peary sledge Party "at the North Pole" 1909. From left to right: Ooqueah, Ootah, Henson, Egingwah, Seeglo.
The conquest of the North Pole has been for many years in the credit of the United States Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached April 6 Polo 1909, accompanied by American Matthew Henson and four Inuit men named Ootah, and Ooqueah Seeglo Egingwah. However, Peary's claim remains controversial. The party that accompanied Peary on the final stage of the trip does not include one who was trained in navigation and could independently confirm his own work of navigation, some of whom claim to have been particularly neglected as it approached the pole.
The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support group became seem incredible to many people, almost three times what has been accomplished to this point. Peary story of a journey to the Pole and back during a trip to along the direct line of the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints faced by the account is contradicted by Henson tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads.
British explorer Wally Herbert, first supporter of research on issues of Peary Peary in 1989 and concluded that must have been falsified and that Peary did not reach the pole. Support Peary came again in 2005, however, when the British explorer Tom Avery and four companions recreated Peary's foreign trip with replica wood sleds and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours, about five hours faster than Peary. Avery wrote on his website that "The admiration and respect I wish that Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has increased significantly since leaving Cape Columbia. After seeing for myself how he traveled across the ice, I more convinced than ever that Peary had discovered the North Pole. "
The first flight was on the division was made on May 9, 1926 by an American naval officer Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett, pilot of a Fokker tri-motor. Although verified at the time of the U.S. Navy and a committee of the National Geographic Society, this claim has been questioned.
The first observation was the undisputed center May 12, 1926 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and Lincoln Ellsworth American sponsor of the dirigible Norge. Norge, despite belonging to Norway, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard and crossed the ice of Alaska. Nobile, with several scientists and crew of the Norge, flew over the Pole a second time May 24, 1928 in the airship Italia. Italy crashed his return pole, with the loss of half crew.
19402000
In May 1945 an expedition MAR Aries Lancaster became the first aircraft to fly across the north of the Commonwealth true and magnetic north pole. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley Royal Air Army. Carried a crew of 11 men, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the Royal Force Air Canada in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honored with a place in the Canadian Aviation Hall of Fame.
issue Peary claim discount, the first men to set foot on the North Pole were, according to some sources, a party of the Soviet Union. These are variously Pavel including Gordiyenko (or Geordiyenko) and three or five, or Aleksandr Kuznetsov and 23 others who landed a plane (or planes), on April 23, 1948. According Antarctica.org three Li-2 aircraft landed, with a total of seven men.
The May 3, 1952, the U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William P. Benedict XVI and the scientist Albert P. Crary, landed a modified C-47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some sources consider this (instead of the Soviet mission) to the first landing at the pole.
Skate ASU 1959 at the North Pole
The U.S. Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole August 3, 1958 and March 17, 1959, the USS Skate (SSN-578) surface at the pole, becoming the first naval vessel to do so.
Cancellation request Peary first confirmed surface conquer the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Bombardier, Jean-Luc, who traveled in the snow and ice came April 19, 1968. The States Air United Force confirmed its position independently.
On April 6, 1969, Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the issue British Trans-Arctic has become the first man to reach the North Pole on foot (but with the help of dog teams and air drops). They continued to complete the surface first crossing of the Arctic Ocean and its major axis, Barrow, Alaska, to Spitsbergen, a feat never repeated. Because Plaisted suggestions for the use of air transport Some sources classify the issue Herbert confirmed as the first to reach the North Pole on the ice surface, by any means.
Memorial in honor of the icebreaker Arktika conquered the North Pole in 1977 in the lobby of the Museum of Local Lore Murmansk region
On August 17, 1977, the Soviet Nuclear powered icebreaker Arktika made the trip from the vessel surface for the first time the North Pole.
In 1982, Sir Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton became the first to cross Arctic Ocean a season. They left Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, February 17, 1982 and reached the geographic North Pole April 10, 1982. They traveled on foot and by snowmobile. From the pole, traveled south of Svalbard, but due to the unstable nature of the ice, put an end to the transition to the ice edge, which comes south on an ice floe for 99 days. They were finally able to walk to his ship Submission "MV Benjamin Bowring and arrested August 4, 1982 at 80:31 N 0:59 W Position A Following this trip, which formed a section Transglobe Expedition three years 19791982, Fiennes and Burton were the first to complete a world tour through both North and South poles, Travels in a single layer. This achievement leave it until today.
On September 7, 1991, the German research vessel Polarstern and the icebreaker Swedish Oden reached the North Pole as the first of conventionally powered ships .. Both scientists and crew parties oceanographic and geological samples Common had a tug of war and a football game on ice. Polarstern reached the pole more than exactly 10 years later with the USCGC Healy.
Century 21
Charlotte North Pole in 2005 u $ s
In recent years, travel to the North Pole by air (helicopter or a prepared runway ice) or ice-breakers have become relatively common, and even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies.
In 2005, the U.S. Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN-766 surface) to 155 cm (61 inches) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours, y.
In April 2007, the Dutch artist Guido van der Werve show created a work of art at the North Pole. By standing exactly on the pole for 24 hours and turning slowly clockwise (The earth rotates to the left), while that from his own shadow, Van der Werve literally does not work with the world one day. This performance is called "Number Negen [Dutch Number Nine], the day they do not become the world. "Van der Werve the time 24 hours 9 minutes.
In July 2007, British resistance Swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1 km swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of climate change, was carried out in water clear that had opened between the icebergs. His last attempt to kayak to North Pole at the end of 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clean water for the pole, was frustrated when his expedition was caught in heavy ice, after only three days. The expedition was abandoned.
A 2007 episode of BBC Top Gear car show, whose host has been described as a route to the North Pole, "was actually an expedition to the Magnetic North Pole position in 1996.
2007 descent to North Pole seabed
Main article: Arktika 2007
On August 2, 2007, a Russian precision Vasu [edit] was the first manned descent to the seabed at the North Pole at a depth of 4.3 km, as part of a research program to support the 2001 Russian territorial claim a wide swath of the Arctic Ocean. The decline took place in two MIR submersibles and was directed by the Soviet and Russian polar explorer Arthur Chilingarov. In a symbolic gesture Russian flag was placed on the seabed to the exact position of the post.
Shipping is the latest in a series of several decades of success in Russia to show that is the dominant influence in the Arctic. Global warming and the Arctic summer sea ice retreat suddenly turned the attention of countries, from China to the United States to the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes soon be usable.
Day and night
See also Midnight Sun and the polar night
At the North Pole, the sun is constantly above the horizon during the summer months and permanently in the sky during the winter months. Exit the sun just before the spring equinox (around March 19), the sun takes three months to reach a peak elevation of about 23 in the summer solstice (about June 21), after which began to run to get the sunset just after the autumnal equinox (around September 24). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, which seems to move in a circle at the top right horizon. This circle is gradually raised from near the horizon, just after the spring equinox to its maximum height (degrees) above the horizon during the summer solstice and then sinks into the horizon before sinking below it in the Fall Equinox.
A period of civil twilight for about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, a period of twilight Nautical about five weeks before of this increase takes the product and after sunset and astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks before departure and after sunset sun.
These effects are caused by a combination of the tilt of Earth's axis and its revolution around the sun. The slope direction Earth's axis and its angle to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun, remained almost constant during one year (two evolve very slowly over long periods). In midsummer the north to the North Pole faces the sun at its maximum. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the Sun, the North Pole away from the sun is going to the middle of winter, is almost opposite the Sun at its maximum. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole with a time difference of six months.
Time
In most places on Earth, the date is determined by the length, so that when the day is more or less synchronized with the position of the sun in the sky (eg at noon, the sun is almost at its maximum). This line of reasoning fails at the North Pole where the sun rises and sets only once a year, and all lines length, so all time zones converge. There are no permanent human presence in the North Pole, and no particular time zone has been assigned. polar expeditions can use any zone that is convenient, as GMT, the time zone of the country they left.
Weather
withdrawn from the Arctic in 2007 compared with 2005 and compared to the 1979-2000 average.
The North Pole is considerably warmer than the south pole, as it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than altitude in a land mass.
Winter (January), temperatures at the North Pole can range from about 43 C (45 F) to 26 C (15 F) perhaps with an average of 34 C (30 F). Summer temperatures (June, July and August) average around the freezing point (0 ° C, 32 F).
The sea ice North Pole is typically around two or three meters thick, but there is considerable variation and sometimes the movement of floes exposes clear water. Studies showed that the average thickness of ice has decreased in recent years. Many attribute this decline to global warming, although this conclusion is disputed by some. The Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be completely ice free during summer months. This may have important implications business, see "Land Claims" below.
Flora and fauna
The polar bears are rarely thought to travel beyond North of about 82 due to a shortage of food, though the tracks were seen near the North Pole expedition and in 2006 reported sighting of a polar bear than a mile (1.6 km) the pole. The ringed seal has also been observed in the polar and arctic foxes were observed within 60 km, at 8940 N.
Birds seen at or very near the pole are Nieve Bunting, Northern Fulmar and Kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to track ships and shipping.
The fish have been observed in the waters of the North Pole, but they are probably few. A Russian team member to the North Pole in August 2007 reported seeing all the marine animals living there. However, later reported that the sea anemone had been collected in the mud of the seabed by the Russian team and video recordings of the immersion showed unidentified shrimp and amphipods.
Territorial claims regions of the North Pole and the Arctic
Main article: claims Arctic territorial
Under international law, no country currently owns the North Pole or the Arctic Ocean region surrounding it. The five Arctic environment, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States (via Alaska), are limited to one mile 200 nautical miles (370 km, 230 km) exclusive economic zone around their coasts, and the area beyond which is administered by the International Seabed Authority Seabed.
Then ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has a period of ten years to make claims to expand its 200-mile zone. Norway (ratified the Convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have Projects launched basic claims that some sectors of the Arctic should belong to its territory.
Cultural Associations
In some cultures of the West Geographic North Pole is the residence of Santa Claus. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole (in reference to Santa's traditional exclamation "Ho-ho-ho!").
This association reflects ancient esoteric mythology of Hyperborea, which postulates the North Pole, the world beyond the axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings (see Joscelyn Godwin, Arktos: The Polar Myth). The popular figure of Santa Claus post housing functions as a spiritual archetype of purity and esoteric transcendence (). As Henry Corbin has documented, North Pole plays a key role in the cultural worldview of esoteric Sufism and Iranian mysticism. "The results of the mystical East, the Orient that can not be displayed on our maps, is in the north, beyond the north. "The group also identified with a mysterious mountain in the Arctic Ocean, called Mount Qaf (see RUPES Nigra), whose ascent, like Dante's climbing the mountain of Purgatory is Progress through the pilgrim's spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the celestial pole, the focal point of spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to attract people his burning palace, "with immaterial matter."
Fantasy Flight will often refer to a flight to the North Pole for the same reasons.
See also
South Pole
Arctic exploration
Polaris
Inuit Circumpolar Council
Arctic Council
Arctic Circle
Biome
North Pole, Alaska
Global warming
Santa Claus
References
^ Russian sub plants flag at North Pole, Reuters, August 2, 2007
^ John K. Wright Geographical Journal, vol. 43, No. 3. (July 1953), pp. 338-365 "The open polar sea"
^ B. Henderson (2005) True North & WW Norton ISBN 0 393 32738 8 Company
^ Http: / / www.heritage.nf.ca / scan / pearyfrontis.html
^ Obituary, The Independent June 16, 2007
^ Tom Avery, accessed May 2007
^ North Pole Flight of Richard E. Byrd: An Overview of the Controversy, Byrd Polar Research Center at Ohio University
Flights Arles ^ 1945, Hugh A. Halliday, Legion Magazine
^ Guinness World Records, 1998 edition
^ A Brief Chronology of the approaches to the Poles, headland RK, DIO Vol. 4 N º 3
^ Brief History of the approach towards the poles, Scott Polar Research Institute
^ Antarctica.org
^ Aviation History Facts, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission
^ Obituary Sir Wally Herbert, Times Online, June 13, 2007
Ab ^ Obituary of Sir Wally Herbert, Guardian Unlimited June 15, 2007
^ Northpolewomen.com
Ftterer ^ D. et al. (1992) The expedition ARK-VIII / 3 of RV Polarstern in 1991 Reports on Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, 107, pp 267, HDL: 10013/epic.10107.d001 (PDF 6.4 MB)
^ Thiede, J. et al. (2002) Polarstern Arktis XVII / 2 Speed Report: AMORE 2001 (Arctic Expedition ocean ridge), Reports Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, 421, 390 pp, HDL: 10013/epic.10426.d001 (pdf 8 MB)
^ USS Charlotte is placed on Milestone ice during transport, kiosk Navy website, accessed May 2007
^ Artist's website
^ Swimmer rises to Arctic Challenge, BBC News, July 15, 2007
^ BBC Top Gear production notes (Polar Special)
^ (Russian) press release dated July 9, 2007 Aari
Ab ^ Russian sub plants N flagpole, BBC News, August 2, 2007
^ (Russian) News video of Russian descent to North Pole background
^ BBC News video of origin Russian North Pole background
^ The Russian North Obsession perch, the New York Times, August 2, 2007
^ The Big Melt, The New York Times, October 2005
^ A question of Sciences of the week ", Goddard Space Center
^ Beyond "Polar Express: Summary from the North Pole Real News National Geographic
Ab ^ Top Of The World: The North Pole With regard to water? John L. Daly
^ "The Arctic ice thickness drops to 19 percent "Daily Telegraph, October 28, 2008
^ Arctic sea ice 'faces rapid melt', BBC News in December 2006
^ Polar Bear – Population and distribution, WWF, January 2007
Blog ^ Explorers' Thin Ice project of Greenpeace, July 1, 2006
^ Seal Surrounded made his home ice, Antti Halkka
^ The Arctic fox, Magnus Tannerfeldt
^ Ab further north polar bears (Ursus maritimus)
^ "Sea Anemone Northern Poland for the majority of species of the North ", The Observer August 2, 2009
^ "United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Annex 2, Section 4). http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/annex2.htm. Retrieved on 26/07/2007.
Abcd ^ http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/status2007.pdf
^ The battle for the next frontier of energy: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, by Shamil and Timothy Fenton Yenikeyeff Midkhatovich Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007
^ "Canada Post Launches 24th Annual Santa Program letters, Canada Post's statement November 15, 2006 press
^ Corbin, The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism, trans. N. Pearson, 1978
^ Ibid., P. 44
^ Ibid., P. 11
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to the North Pole
Arctic Council
The Northern Forum
North Pole Travel Guide Wikitravel
Web Cam North Pole
The short Arctic summer of 2004
The surprise was the 2003 Arctic
Consideration of surface melting from 2002 to present revealed North Pole Web Cam
Questions about the Arctic and the North Pole
Polar Controversies continue to rage Roderick Eime article
magnetic poles from locations 1600 Download the KMZ file. For users of Google Earth.
Polar Carrera race every two years in office in 1996 certified the Magnetic North Pole
The Polar Challenge an annual race to the Magnetic North Pole
Daylight, darkness and the changing seasons at the North Pole
Video of the scientists on the ice at the North Pole and begins to crack underfoot
Experts warn North Pole will be 'ice free' by 2040
Goudarzi, Sara, "Meltdown: Ice Cracks at North Pole." September 2006, at LiveScience,> Web> Link, Accessed January 29, 2007.
"The North Pole was here: puzzles and perils at the top of the world (first chapter) "
Video of the nuclear icebreaker Yamal visiting the North Pole in 2001
Polar Discovery: North Central Pole Expedition
Categories: Geography of extreme points of the Earth | Canada | Poles Navigation | | Geography of ArcticHidden categories: Wikipedia births | March 2009 requiring clarification About the Author

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